Accommodating all Learning Styles; An Effort for a Better Learning Process

Poor Eddie. His mother had to take him home because his teachers felt desperate handling him in class. “He is annoying most of the time. It’s totally hard to adjust him. Besides, his brain is too slow to grasp the lessons”, his teacher complained. Since then, Eddie spent eighteen hours per day at his own small “laboratory” at home. He never considered his activities at his lab as “working” or “studying”. “I just play. It is a pleasure”, he said. The history notes that Eddie, or Thomas Alfa Edison as his full name, the person who had ever been dropped-out from the school and considered brainless by the teachers, in the following time became the most productive inventor with his 1300 inventions during his life, one of them was the lamp. He was only one of those whose learning styles were unmatched with the teachers’ teaching styles in most of conventional schools. Albert Einstein, considered as the most genius person in the world, was also dropped-out from his primary school due to his disobedient attitude and his slow ability in grasping the lessons.

We have known since a long time that many famous successful persons in the world were not successful at their schools. Many persons graduate from schools with worst grades or even “fail” to graduate due to their poor grades. However, those who “fail” actually have the same brain , the same potency, the same chance to succeed. We, as the perfect “primata”, have the perfect brain with the same parts of it that are functioned as the builder of our intelligence. Everybody is smart, with his own way. So, what makes them different?

Recently, we are “attacked” by the latest findings from the educational researchers that may change our point of view toward education. Some of them are: there are many (at least eight) kinds of intelligence in human’s brain , there are many (at least three) kinds of learning styles, and there are many (at least four) kinds of thinking (organizing information) types. No single way is better than others.

In fact, the most important but the most forgotten thing to consider by the educators is the varied learning styles the learners may possess. They can be visual learners (access visual image to remember), auditory learners (access the sounds and words to remember), or kinesthetic learners (access the movements and emotions to remember). Most of us are visual learners, and naturally become visual teachers. Consequently, the students whose learning styles are different from us will have more difficulties in grasping the lessons because they process “the world” through “different language” from us. That’s the root problem: the “traditional” schools or educational institutions seldom or never accommodate some students’ learning styles so they look unintelligent. Einstein and Edison were kinesthetic learners; they learnt most when they involved with the activity, actively with their physical contact. They couldn’t stand sitting nicely on the chairs, listening what the teacher’s say, and nodding their heads to show their understanding. They couldn’t stop annoying the teachers with the questions and ridiculous manners. However, they were considered foolish by their teachers and kicked out from their schools. Unfortunately, we sometimes forget that the ‘unmatched styles’ between ‘difficult learners’ and teachers’ way of teaching has been happening continuously nowadays. Handling many characters of students, I found that the students have varied ways of memorizing vocabulary or sentence patterns. Some are accustomed to close their eyes and say the words aloud over and over (so afterward I ask them to clearly pronounce the words in turns), some prefer looking at the whiteboard quietly and making a neat note in order to review the words (so I clearly note them the words, the way to pronounce and the meaning on the whiteboard), and the rest are easy to understand the words if I demonstrate them (using gestures or other movements ). I agree that ideally, education should accommodate all kinds of learning styles . This is an effort to have better learning processes.

My Life Philosophy!

For me, life consists of stimulating chances. Although it doesn’t always give us the answers for all of our questions, it really gives us the facts to make us think about the answers. Although it doesn’t always consist of nice things, it really gives us many lessons to understand what’s behind the bad things happened. Living our life to the fullest will make us realize that life is designed as perfect as we need. That’s why, there’s no reason not to live life to the fullest.

I believe that it also become a good purpose of life. Living life to the fullest, and be happy for all circumstances, should become our goal in live. However, living life in common ways, doing common activities, talking about common problems to common people, seem always ‘common’ for many of us. We often don’t see life as something precious to celebrate.

Is life so common? If we see many ‘unlucky’ people with fewer chances to survive and get success in their life, but they keep struggling and make it, we will feel very sinful not to feel grateful for our blessed life. It’s no reason for us not to live life with full of enthusiasm.

It's totally easy to be miserable. However, I really believe that being happier is tougher- and cooler 

What Education Really Means for Me

Education is life itself. - John Dewey

John Dewey (1859-1952) believed that learning was active and schooling unnecessarily long and restrictive. His idea was that children came to school to do things and live in a community which gave them real, guided experiences which fostered their capacity to contribute to society. For example, Dewey believed that students should be involved in real-life tasks and challenges: • maths could be learnt via learning proportions in cooking or figuring out how long it would take to get from one place to another by mule • history could be learnt by experiencing how people lived, geography, what the climate was like, and how plants and animals grew, were important subjects

I believe that not only the purpose of education is in life itself, but also education is all about life. What should teachers consider in teaching their students is to provide them with life skills (read: competence), not materials. The problem is that people in traditional forms of education usually approach it from the standpoint of just preparing a person for a job. But one’s job isn’t the definition of one’s life—it’s only that which enables u to have enough money to meet our needs. Our lives encompass a much broader arena than one’s capacity to earn money. Any educational system that teaches only job skills or offers only intellectual information is neglecting the essential needs of human beings.

We need proper training in “how-to-live” skills such as how to find the right mate, how to raise our children, how to be a good employee, how to get along with our neighbors, and how to concentrate our minds so that we can draw success into all of our endeavors. There are many such skills that are essential to prepare a child for adulthood, and in traditional education many of them are completely ignored. If we train people to drive buses or operate machines, we get skilled workers who can do particular jobs. But if we teach people to think, and provide them with wide horizons, they can do many things; they can train and retrain in different positions, they can be flexible and adaptable in exporting their mental skills from one job to another, and in general they can provide their employers and the country at large with the advantage of being an educated, and not merely a trained, workforce. Thus, education is absolutely not about the eight hours a day we spend at the workplace. In fact, it should be about the whole character and quality of our lives.

Menjawab Kritik "Gagal"nya Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris: Upaya Memahami Kembali Filosofi Kurikulum Berbasis Literasi

Abstract: Many criticisms are embattled to the teaching of English as a Foreign Language by our teachers due to incompetent outputs. The students who have experienced learning English for at least six years in secondary schools seem to lack of competence in using their English in the real contexts so that it lessens their opportunity to compete strictly in this global era. This paper tries to elaborate the need of putting the paradigm of EFL teaching into what we call as literacy-based curriculum. By using literacy-based approach in EFL teaching, students are prepared to have competence to take part in modern societies. Creating literate generation as the final purpose of language teaching at schools are in urgency considering the facts that low level of literacy is strongly correlated with the indicator of human development index.

Key Words: literacy-based curriculum, EFL teaching


I. Pendahuluan

Banyak sekali kritik tajam mengarah pada pengajaran Bahasa Inggris di sekolah yang dinilai gagal, yang diantaranya justru dilemparkan oleh praktisi pendidikan sendiri. Keterampilan berbahasa (Inggris) para lulusan SMA/MA/sederajat kerap kali dinilai tidak operasional, yang mengakibatkan mereka tidak kompetitif memasuki dunia global. Salah satu kritik misalnya datang dari seorang dosen Fakultas Bahasa Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Abbas A Babib seperti yang dilansir Media Indonesia pada 6 Nopember 2000 yang menilai bahwa pengajaran bahasa Inggris yang diterapkan di Indonesia gagal total karena kemampuan menulis, mendengar, dan berbicara dalam bahasa Inggris lulusan SLTA sama sekali tidak operasional. "Ini merupakan kerugian yang tak ternilai bagi ketenagakerjaan dan perekonomian Indonesia. Akibat kegagalan ini, lulusan SLTA tidak kompetitif dalam dunia bisnis," begitu kritik Abbas.

Terdapat banyak hal mencolok yang dapat dijadikan sebagai indikator dari kegagalan pengajaran Bahasa Inggris, diantaranya:

1. Tidak terbekalinya para lulusan SMA/sederajat dengan keterampilan berbahasa yang memadai, seperti yang dikritik Artsiyanti (2002) dan Furchan (2009). Selama ini para siswa tampaknya banyak belajar tentang bahasa Inggris, bukan belajar berbahasa Inggris, sehingga menghasilkan pengetahuan tapi bukan keterampilan.

2. Menjamurnya kursus Bahasa Inggris sebagai tuntutan atas ’tidak memadainya’ pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris di sekolah, seperti yang dikritik Widiyanto (2008) dan Artsiyanti (2002). Saat ini menguasai Bahasa Inggris secara praktis dan instan tampak makin menjadi tren dengan banyak jargon memikat seperti ”We Make English Easy”, ”Others Teach You English, We Make You Speak”, atau yang bombastis ”Kuasai Bahasa Inggris dalam waktu 50 jam saja”. Banyak pendapat mengatakan bahwa tidak mungkin kursus-kursus Bahasa Inggris sedemikian menjamurnya di Indonesia jika hasil pengajaran Bahasa Inggris di sekolah ternyata memuaskan. Jika demikian halnya, maka kursus Bahasa Inggris yang ada hanyalah yang ditujukan untuk kepentingan-kepentingan khusus seperti untuk memperoleh sertifikat TOEFL, IELTS, dan lain-lain serta bukan yang ditujukan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan berbahasa Inggris dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Dus, menjamurnya kursus ini ditengarai merupakan reaksi dari ’kurang puas’nya, dan ’kurang terbekalinya’ para pelajar dengan pengajaran yang diterima di sekolah.

3. Pendekatan komunikatif yang bertujuan untuk mengembangkan empat keterampilan berbahasa (menyimak, berbicara, membaca dan menulis) kerap kali diimplementasikan oleh guru dengan lebih mengutamakan kecakapan lisan daripada kecakapan memahami wacana. Lebih jauh sebagaimana ditengarai Celce-Muria, Dornyei dan Thurrel (1997) dan juga Mullock (2002) seperti yang dikutip Djiwandono (2009), keyakinan ini masih diiringi oleh gejala mengorbankan ketetapan tata bahasa untuk mencapai kefasihan bertutur, yang akibatnya gejala ”Me understand you, you understand me, no problem lah”, menjadi semakin umum. Hasilnya bisa dipastikan: ”Broken English” (alias Bahasa Inggris yang tidak jelas dan asal bunyi).

4. Hingar bingar Ujian Nasional (UN) tampak makin menjauhkan para guru dari idealisme tujuan pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris itu sendiri, seperti yang juga dikatakan oleh Riza (2006). UN jelas hanya mengujikan penguasaan komponen-komponen Bahasa Inggris (structure, vocabulary dan lain-lain) namun bukan penguasaan berbahasa secara integratif. Momok UN mau tak mau membuat para guru mengarahkan seluruh fokus perhatian, materi dan aktivitas pembelajaran terhadap kelulusan UN, bahkan model soal UN juga disimulasikan dalam kelas.

Pertanyaan yang kemudian muncul adalah, bagaimana hendaknya para praktisi pendidikan menyikapi dan meminimalisir potensi ’kegagalan’ pengajaran Bahasa Inggris ini seperti banyak yang dialamatkan pada para guru di sekolah/madrasah selama ini? Makalah ini mencoba untuk mendudukkan kemantapan pandangan kita kembali pada filosofi kurikulum berbasis literasi dan mendasarkan tiap pembelajaran pada prinsip-prinsip literasi, sebagai usulan jawaban untuk permasalahan mendasar pada pengajaran Bahasa Inggris di sekolah/madrasah.

Seperti yang kita ketahui, khusus mata pelajaran bahasa Inggris, kurikulum 2004 disebut juga sebagai Kurikulum Berbasis Literasi (untuk selanjutnya disingkat KBL), yang diharapkan mampu mendongkrak tingkat literasi anak bangsa. Ini merupakan pergeseran paradigma pengajaran bahasa menuju ke pengajaran bahasa yang menyiapkan siswanya untuk memiliki kompetensi agar dapat berpartisipasi dalam masyarakat modern. Pendekatan literasi dalam bahasa berkaitan dengan penggunaan pendekatan mengajar guru yang mengarahkan agar siswa dapat berpartisipasi aktif dalam masyarakat.


II. Mengapa Pendekatan Literasi?

Berdasarkan asal kata, literasi berasal dari kata literacy yang artinya melek huruf (Echols dan Shadily, 1995: 361). Dalam kamus Oxford Advanced Learner’s (1989: 728), literacy disebutkan sebagai kemampuan membaca dan menulis. Secara sederhana, Manullang (2009) mengartikan literasi sebagai kemampuan membaca dan menulis (melek aksara) atau kemampuan menggunakan bahasa untuk membaca, menulis, berbicara, dan mendengar. Dalam program pemerintah, literasi seringkali diterjemahkan lurus menjadi program Calistung, Baca-Tulis-Hitung. Paling tidak itulah program awal yang berkaitan dengan literasi, karena memang yang menjadi target adalah angka melek-huruf rakyat Indonesia. Standar minimum melek huruf di Indonesia memang bisa membaca, baik itu huruf latin, dan/atau huruf Arab.

Program melek huruf sudah menjadi program PBB, karena dipercaya melek huruf memiliki kaitan sangat erat dengan kemiskinan. Untuk itu, hari melek huruf diperingati setiap tahunnya pada 8 September. Di Indonesia sendiri, berdasarkan informasi di web tempointeraktif.com, pada semester pertama 2006, jumlah buta aksara mencapai 8,36 persen atau 3.182.492 orang. Pemerintah menargetkan buta aksara usia 15 tahun ke atas, turun menjadi 5 persen pada 2009.

Namun persoalannya, apakah ‘melek huruf’ berarti sekedar hanya bisa membaca menulis dan menghitung (calistung)? Secara komprehensif ‘melek huruf’ sebenarnya mencakup mengidentifikasi, mengerti, menerjemahkan, membuat, mengkomunikasikan dan mengolah isi dari bahan-bahan cetak dan tulisan. Karenanya istilah literasi berkembang, literasi dimaknai secara luas sebagai kemampuan seseorang dalam menggunakan informasi tertulis atau cetak untuk mengembangkan pengetahuan, sehingga mendatangkan manfaat bagi masyarakat. Kirsch dan Jungeblut dalam Literacy: Profiles of America’s Young Adults seperti dikutip Manullang (2009) mengatakan bahwa seorang baru bisa dikatakan literat jika ia sudah bisa memahami sesuatu karena membaca dan melakukan sesuatu berdasarkan pemahaman bacaannya.

Literasi dapat berlangsung pada bidang apapun, kita mengenal literasi sains, literasi matematika, literasi teknologi dan informasi, bahkan literasi media. Adapun literasi bahasa dimaknai sebagai kemampuan membaca dan menulis seseorang pada tingkat minimal yang digunakan sebagai alat komunikasi, atau kemampuan berbahasa seseorang yang pada suatu tingkatan tertentu ide-idenya dapat dikomunikasikan dan dipahami dalam suatu masyarakat yang literate sehingga orang tersebut dapat berperan dalam masyarakat tersebut. Kern (2000) memberikan defenisi literasi dalam konteks akademik pendidikan bahasa kedua atau bahasa asing sebagai berikut, yang dapat ditarik sebuah prinsip makronya yaitu bahwa literasi melibatkan komunikasi:

Literacy is the use of socially, historically, and culturally situated practices of creating and interpreting meaning through texts. It entails at least a tacit awareness of the relationship between textual conventions and their context of use and ideally, the ability to reflect critically and those relationships. Because it is purpose-sensitive, literacy is dynamic –not static, and variable across within discourse communities and cultures. It draws in a wide range of cognitive abilities, and knowledge of written and spoken language, and knowledge of genres, and on cultural knowledge.

Dus, menciptakan generasi literat sebagai tujuan akhir dari pengajaran di sekolah telah menjadi demikian urgen, mengingat fakta bahwa tingkat literasi yang rendah berkaitan erat dengan tingginya tingkat drop-out sekolah, kemiskinan, dan pengangguran, yang ketiganya merupakan indikator rendahnya indeks pembangunan manusia (Wagner: 2000 dalam Manulang: 2009). Literasi yang dimiliki oleh suatu masyarakat tampak sangat menentukan corak kehidupan masyarakatnya. Negara maju cenderung telah memiliki standar literasi yang lebih tinggi daripada negara-negara dunia ketiga. Dengan demikian tak berlebihan jika dikatakan agar negara kita mencapai tingkat kemajuan yang lebih berarti, pemerintah harus ekstra bekerja untuk meningkatkan standar literasinya.

Karenanya tak mengherankan jika dewasa ini kecenderungan yang sedang berkembang di negara-negara maju adalah mewujudkan pendidikan melalui pembangunan kemahiran wacana (literacy education). Tujuan literasi ini adalah agar setiap warga negara mampu berkomunikasi (baik lisan maupun tulisan) untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidupnya. Dus, pengajaran bahasa Inggris juga diarahkan untuk mengembangkan kemampuan berbahasa yang menjadikan siswa mandiri sepanjang hayat, kreatif, dan mampu memecahkan masalah dengan cara menggunakan kemampuan berbahasa Inggrisnya.

Hal ini sebetulnya relevan dengan kurikulum yang kita pakai yang secara jelas menetapkan bahwa pembelajaran bahasa Inggris dimaksudkan sebagai upaya pembelajaran bahasa sebagai alat komunikasi; yaitu bagaimana siswa dapat menggunakan bahasa dalam interaksi sosial, yaitu sebagai bahasa komunikasi. Oleh karena itu, pengajaran bahasa Inggris difokuskan pada kompetensi wacana atau teks (discourse competence) dengan asumsi bahwa dalam berkomunikasi orang menciptakan wacana, baik secara lisan maupun tulis. Dengan kata lain, tugas guru bahasa adalah mengembangkan kemampuan siswa untuk berkomunikasi atau untuk saling bertukar makna (Depdiknas, Landasan Filosofis dan Teoritis Pendidikan Bahasa, 2004). Karenanya dapat dicapai kesepakatan final bahwa pengajaran bahasa Inggris harus menekankan pada pentingnya penggunaan bahasa secara wajar dan otentik guna mengembangkan life skills, yaitu mampu melayani kebutuhan siswa sebagai anggota masyarakat.


III. Landasan Filosofis Kurikulum Bahasa Berbasis Kompetensi Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris Berdasarkan Literasi

Filsafat memegang peranan penting dalam pengembangan kuikulum. Sama halnya seperti dalam Filsafat Pendidikan, kita dikenalkan pada berbagai aliran filsafat, seperti perenialisme, esensialisme, eksistensialisme, progresivisme, dan rekonstruktivisme. Dalam pengembangan kurikulum pun senantiasa berpijak pada aliran – aliran filsafat tertentu, sehingga akan mewarnai terhadap konsep dan implementasi kurikulum yang dikembangkan. Beberapa pandangan filosofi kurikulum dijelaskan berikut seperti dikutip Supriatna (2007).

Esensialisme adalah aliran yang menekankan bahwa kurikulum harus menekankan pada penguasaan ilmu, hingga kurikulum yang dikembangkan dalam aliran esensialisme adalah kurikulum disiplin ilmu. Dengan adanya dominasi guru dalam pembelajaran, maka akan menekankan pembelajaran yang academic exellence and cultivation of intelect, daripada kemampuan untuk mengembangkan proses inquiry guna memproduksi pengetahuan baru.

Selanjutnya aliran Perenialisme memandang bahwa sasaran yang harus dicapai oleh pendidikan adalah kepemilikan atas prinsip-prinsip tentang kenyataan, kebenaran dan nilai yang abadi, serta tidak terikat oleh ruang dan waktu. Kurikulum akan menjadi sangat ideologis karena dengan pandangan perernialisme menjadikan peserta didik sebagai warga negara yang memiliki pengetahuan, keterampilan dan sikap yang diinginkan oleh negara. Pandangan perenialis lebih menekankan pada transfer of culture.

Sedangkan filsafat progresivisme memandang bahwa sekolah bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kecerdasan praktis dan membuat siswa lebih efektif dalam memecahkan berbagai masalah yang disajikan. Masalah tersebut ditemukan berdasarkan pengalaman siswa. Terakhir, filsafat rekonstruksionisme berpendapat bahwa sekolah harus diarahkan kepada pencapaian tatanan demokratis yang mendunia. Aliran ini menghendaki agar setiap individu dan kelompok mampu mengembangkan pengetahuan, teori, atau pandangan tertentu yang paling relevan dengan kepentingan mereka melalui pemberdayaan peserta didik dalam proses pembelajaran guna memproduksi pengetahuan baru. Aliran filsafat ini lebih menekankan agar siswa dalam pembelajaran mampu menemukan (inquri). Aktivitas siswa menjadi prioritas utama dalam berlangsungnya pembelajaran.

Selain aliran filsafat diatas, terdapat pendekatan kompetensi komunikatif yang dibangun oleh Celce-Muria, Thurrel dan Dornyei (1995) yang menunjukkan pada kita kompetensi apa saja yang perlu dikembangkan pada pelajaran Bahasa Inggris dalam Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi. Menurut pandangan ini, diperlukan kompetensi berbahasa yang tak hanya menuntut ketepatan gramatikal tapi juga ketepatan dalam konteks sosial. Kompetensi komunikatif terdiri atas empat area kompetensi, yaitu: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, dan strategic competences. Berikut ini penjelasan masing-masing kompetensi tersebut:

a. Linguistic competence, menjelaskan bagaimana menggunakan grammar, syntax, dan vocabulary dalam bahasa. Berupaya menjawab pertanyaan berikut: “Kata apa yang saya gunakan?”; Bagaimana saya memasukkannya dalam suatu kalimat?”.

b. Sociolinguistic competence, menjelaskan bagaimana menggunakan dan merespon bahasa secara tepat sesuai dengan situasi dan topik dan hubungannya dengan orang-orang yang terlibat dalam komunikasi. Berupaya menjawab “Kata dan kalimat apa yang tepat saya gunakan dalam situasi ini?”; “bagaimana saya mengekspresikan sikap tertentu (resmi, persahabatan)?”; Kapan saya melakukan itu?”; “Bagaimana saya mengetahui respon yang diberikan oleh lawan bicara saya?”.

c. Discourse competence, menjelaskan bagaimana menafsirkan bahasa dalam konteks yang lebih luas dan bagaimana kesatuan bahasa yang padu secara keseluruhan. Pendapat lain mengatakan bahwa discourse competence terkait dengan interaksi dalam percakapan, yaitu kemampuan berpartisipasi aktif dalam percakapan. Pertanyaan yang harus dijawab adalah “Bagaimana kata, frasa, dan kalimat ditempatkan bersama dalam suatu percakapan, pidato, email, artikel koran, dan lain-lain?

d. Strategic competence, menjelaskan bagaimana mengenal dan memperbaiki bagian-bagian dari wacana yang dikomunikasikan? Pertanyaan yang harus dijawab adalah “Bagaimana saya mengetahui telah terjadi miskomunikasi, baik dari saya atau dari lawan komunikasi saya?”; Apa yang harus saya katakan kemudian?”; “Bagaimana saya mengekspresikan apa yang harus saya katakan tentang sesuatu bila saya tidak mengetahui nama sesuatu atau kata yang tepat dalam kalimat yang saya gunakan?”.

Dus, paham yang masih relevan diterapkan dalam pembelajaran bahasa adalah paham konstruktivisme (bagian dari kognitivisme) dan kompetensi komunikatif. Selanjutnya dalam pembelajaran bahasa dengan pendekatan literasi kedua paham ini yang akan dikembangkan.

Seperti yang dikatakan Sukmadinata (2002), rekonstruktivisme merupakan elaborasi lanjut dari aliran progresivisme. Pada rekonstruktivisme, peradaban manusia masa depan sangat ditekankan. Di samping menekankan tentang perbedaan individual seperti pada progresivisme, rekonstruktivisme lebih jauh menekankan tentang pemecahan masalah, berfikir kritis dan sejenisnya. Aliran ini akan mempertanyakan untuk apa berfikir kritis, memecahkan masalah, dan melakukan sesuatu. Penganut aliran ini menekankan pada hasil belajar dari pada proses.

Lebih lanjut dikatakannya, aliran Filsafat Perenialisme, Essensialisme, Eksistensialisme merupakan aliran filsafat yang mendasari terhadap pengembangan Model Kurikulum Subjek-Akademis. Sedangkan, filsafat progresivisme memberikan dasar bagi pengembangan Model Kurikulum Pendidikan Pribadi. Sementara, filsafat rekonstruktivisme banyak diterapkan dalam pengembangan Model Kurikulum Interaksional.

Beberapa pemikir konstruktivis seperti Vigotsky menekankan berbagi dan konstruksi sosial dalam pembentukan pengetahuan (konstruktivisme sosial); sedangkan yang lain seperti Piaget melihat konstruksi individu lah yang utama (konstruktivisme individu).
Terkait dengan hal ini, Hoy dan Miskel (2005) seperti yang dikutip Sumintono (2009) menjelaskan tentang konstruktivisme sosial. Berbeda dengan Piaget, Vygotsky percaya bahwa pengetahuan dibentuk secara sosial, yaitu terhadap apa yang masing-masing partisipan kontribusikan dan buat secara bersama-sama. Sehingga perkembangan pengetahuan yang dihasilkan akan berbeda-beda dalam konteks budaya yang berbeda. Interaksi sosial, alat-alat budaya, dan aktivitasnya membentuk perkembangan dan kemampuan belajar individual. Vygotsky melihat bahwa alat-alat budaya (termasuk di dalamnya kertas, mesin cetak, komputer dan lain-lain) dan alat-alat simbolik (seperti sistem angka, peta, karya seni, bahasa, serta kode dan lambang) memainkan peran penting dalam perkembangan kognitif. Sistem angka romawi misalnya punya keterbatasan untuk operasi perhitungan; berbeda dengan sistem angka arab yang biasa kita gunakan yang mempunyai lambang nol, bisa dibentuk pecahan, nilai positif dan negatif, menyatakan bilangan yang tak terhingga besarnya dan lainnya. Sistem angka yang dipakai adalah alat budaya yang mendukung berpikir, belajar dan perkembangan kognitif. Sistem simbol ini diberikan dari orang dewasa ke anak melalui interaksi formal ataupun informal dan pengajaran.

Lebih lanjut Vygotsky menekankan bahwa semua proses mental tingkat tinggi, seperti berpikir dan pemecahan masalah dimediasi dengan alat-alat psikologi seperti bahasa, lambang dan simbol. Orang dewasa mengajarkan alat-alat ini ke anak dalam kegiatan sehari-hari dan si anak menginternalisasi hal tersebut. Sehingga alat psikologis ini dapat membantu siswa meningkatkan perkembangan mental dan berpikirnya. Pada saat anak berinteraksi dengan orang tua atau teman yang lebih mampu, mereka saling bertukar ide dan cara berpikir tentang representasi dan konsep. Sehingga pengetahuan, ide, sikap dan sistem nilai yang dimiliki anak berkembang seperti halnya cara yang dia pelajari dari lingkungannya.


IV. Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris Berbasis Literasi

Dalam melaksanakan pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris berbasis literasi, terdapat beberapa hal yang harus digarisbawahi. Menurut Wells (1987) seperti yang dikutip Alwasilah (2005) terdapat empat tingkatan literasi sesuai masing-masing jenjang pendidikan yaitu:
 Performative Level; sekadar mampu membaca dan menulis
 Functional Level; kemampuan menggunakan bahasa untuk keperluan hidup (skill for survival) seperti membaca manual atau mengisi formulir permohonan kartu kredit. Bahasa Inggris SMP didesain untuk membekali siswa mencapai literasi tingkat fungsional ini.
 Informational Level; kemampuan mengakses pengetahuan dalam bahasa Inggris. Literasi lulusan SMA diharapkan mencapai tingkat ini.
 Epistemic Level; kemampuan mentransformasi pengetahuan dalam bahasa Inggris.
Selain penekanan pada masing-masing tingkatan tersebut, yang perlu digarisbawahi juga adalah prinsip literasi adalah siklus lisan ke tulisan. Artinya keterampilan berkomunikasi lisan merupakan prasyarat untuk membangun keterampilan komunikasi tulis. Literasi merupakan rangkaian dari lisan (kelas 1 SMP) ke tulisan (kelas 3 SMA). Namun meski bahasa Inggris SMP berorientasi pada komunikasi lisan, siswanya juga diperkenalkan kepada komunikasi tulis secara bertahap, khususnya bahasa tulis ragam lisan.

Untuk menjamin agar ragam lisan tidak mudah dilupakan, setiap unit pengajaran wacana atau teks disusun menjadi empat tahap dan dua siklus, sehingga kemudian metode pembelajaran ini dikenal dengan model Four Steps Two Cycles, seperti yang dikutip dari modul Depdiknas: Landasan Filosofis dan Teoritis Pendidikan Bahasa (2004), juga Alwasilah (2005) dan Listyani (2007). Model Four Steps Two Cycles merupakan model pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang dikembangkan guna menciptakan pengalaman belajar yang berangkat dari siklus lisan ke siklus tulis; yang dalam masing-masing siklusnya memiliki empat tahapan. Empat tahapan tersebut meliputi:

1. Building Knowledge of Text dimana guru memperkenalkan topik yang akan dipelajari, konteks budaya, kosa kata, tata bahasa;
2. Modelling of Text adalah tahap pengenalan teks lisan ataupun tulis kepada siswa, ini adalah tahap pemajangan (exposure) terhadap teks percakapan, keterampilan yang dilatihkan adalah membaca, terutama teks-teks singkat seperti menu makanan di restoran, cara menghidupkan kompor gas, cara memasak nasi goreng, dan sebagainya;
3. Joint Construction of Text menciptakan kolaborasi antarsiswayang menghasilkan teks sebagai hasil kerja sama. Misalnya, bila pada tahap sebelumnya para siswa membicarakan nasi goreng, selanjutnya mereka belajar membuat resep nasi kuning; dan dalam tahap terakhir
4. Independent Construction of Text, siswa diharapkan mampu melakukan percakapan atau monolog dan mampu menulis teks sesuai dengan genre yang dipelajari, misalnya bagaimana membuat bakmi goreng sebagai makanan kesukaannya.
Walaupun secara garis besar proses belajar mengajar digambarkan dalam empat tahapan, dalam prakteknya proses tersebut dilalui dua kali. Artinya, siklus pertama difokuskan pada bahasa lisan dan siklus kedua difokuskan pada bahasa tulis.

Secara umum, antara Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi (KBK) dan apa yang disebut sebagai KBL ini memiliki ruh yang sama. Keduanya bermaksud membangun keterampilan berkomunikasi lisan dan tulis. Hanya, KBL mengisyaratkan untuk jauh lebih rinci dan terfokus dalam mendeskripsi kompetensi. Secara singkat Alwasilah (2005) menekankan bagaimana KBL berbeda dari KBK sebagai berikut. Pertama, secara eksplisit kurikulum SMP berorientasi pada pengembangan kompetensi komunikasi lisan, sedangkan kurikulum SMA pada pengembangan kompetensi komunikasi tulis.

Kedua, kompetensi berwacana (discourse competence) menjadi sentral sedangkan kompetensi lainnya dianggap sebagai kompetensi penunjang. Berwacana berarti memroduksi teks yang spesifik untuk konteks tertentu. Karena itu, kompetensi dibahasakan sangat spesifik dengan menyebutkan tindak bahasa (speech act) seperti bagaimana memulai pembicaraan, meminta maaf, meminta izin, dan mengakhiri percakapan.
Ketiga, KBK menjadikan tema sebagai titik berangkat sehingga polanya adalah let's talk about something. Sebaliknya, KBL menjadikan tindak bahasa sebagai titik berangkat sehingga polanya adalah let's do something with language. Dengan pola ini, tujuan pembelajaran terasa lebih aktif dan agresif.

Keempat, KBL tidak mencantumkan tema-tema untuk ditampilkan di kelas. Yang penting adalah pencapaian kompetensi yang dinyatakan dalam tindak bahasa, sedangkan bahan ajarnya dapat dicari sendiri. Teknik dan metodenya pun diserahkan kepada guru. KBL, dengan demikian, tidak membongkar-pasang kurikulum, tetapi lebih memperkaya pemahaman kita tentang kompetensi berbahasa dan membantu kita memformulasi tujuan pembelajaran dan memilih jenis teks secara lebih spesifik.



V. Kesimpulan

Membekali siswa dengan kompetensi berbahasa Inggris agar dapat berpartisipasi dalam masyarakat modern telah merupakan kebutuhan jika tidak boleh disebut tuntutan. Karenanya pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris di sekolah/madrasah seharusnya benar-benar mengaplikasikan pendekatan mengajar berbasis literasi, yang menekankan penggunaan bahasa secara wajar dan otentik guna mengembangkan life skills. Pendekatan semacam ini idealnya mendorong kemampuan siswa dalam menggunakan informasi tertulis atau cetak untuk mengembangkan pengetahuan, sehingga mendatangkan manfaat bagi masyarakat.
Jika tingkat literasi masyarakat kita sudah meningkat –dimana literat disini bermakna bahwa seseorang memahami sesuatu karena membaca dan melakukan sesuatu berdasarkan pemahaman bacaannya- maka akan ada banyak sekali dampak positif bagi kehidupan berbangsa secara global. Lulusan SMA akan lebih punya daya saing, kemampuan mereka untuk melanjutkan pendidikan setinggi-tingginya lebih terbuka, kapasitas mereka untuk menjadi bagian dari solusi –dan bukan menjadi bagian dari masalah- juga akan meningkat, hingga diharapkan akan ada jauh lebih banyak generasi literat yang berdaya dan berkontribusi lebih dalam masyarakat. This is the real education should be: menghasilkan ‘manusia’, dan bukan mencetak mesin-mesin berbentuk manusia yang hanya bisa menjelaskan tanpa bisa mencipta, hanya bisa memahami gejala tanpa bisa mengatasi masalah, dan mungkin juga hanya bisa mencapai skor TOEFL 500 tanpa bisa berkomunikasi dengan bahasa asing tersebut. 


Daftar Pustaka

______________. Kurikulum Bahasa Inggris 2004, Depdiknas

______________. Landasan Filosofis-Teoritis Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris,
Depdiknas, 2004

Alwasilah, A. Chaedar. 2005. Kurikulum Berbasis Literasi.
www.pikiranrakyat.com. Diakses pada 8 Pebruari 2010.
Artsiyanti, Diba. 2002. Bagaimana Meningkatkan Mutu Hasil Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris di Sekolah. Diakses pada 16 Maret 2010.
Celce-Murcia, Z. Dornyei, S. Thurrel. 1995. Communicative Competence: a
Pedagogically Motivated Model with Content Specifications. Issues in
Applied Linguistics, 6/2.

Djiwandono, Patrisius Istiarto. 2009. Upaya Bangsa Mempelajari Bahasa Asing:Sejauh Mana dan Mau Kemana? Linguistik Indonesia. Tahun ke-27 Nomor 1. Jakarta: Masyarakat Linguistik Indonesia.

Echols, John M dan Hasan Shadily. 1995. Kamus Inggris-Indonesia. Jakarta:
Gramedia.
Furchan, Arief. 2009. Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris di Lembaga Pendidikan Islam di Millenium III. Www.Pendidikanislam.Net/Index.Php/Makalah/41-Makalah-Tertulis/265-Pembelajaran-Bahasa-Inggris-Bernyansa-Islam-Memasuki-Millenium-Iii. Diakses pada 16 Maret 2010.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s. 1989. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kern, R. 2000. Literacy and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Manulang, Marihot. 2009. Dari Membaca Menuju Generasi yang Literat.
www.mhariansib.com. Diakses pada 8 Pebruari 2010.
Media Indonesia. Edisi 6 Nopember 2000. Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris Gagal Total.
Pidarta, Made. 2007. Landasan Kependidikan, Stimulus Ilmu Pendidikan
Bercorak Indonesia. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.
Riza, Faisol. 2006. Kegagalan UAN dalam Reformasi Pendidikan. Edisi 540/14.
Sukmadinata, Nana Syaodih. 2002. Pengembangan Kurikulum: Teori dan Praktek. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya.

Sumintono, Bambang. 2009. Pembelajaran Lanjutan dengan Teori Konstruktivis.
http://netsains.com/2009/02/pembelajaran-lanjutan-dengan-teori-konstruktivis. Diakses pada 5 Mei 2010.

Widiyanto, Kelik Nursetiyo. 2008. Pendidikan Liberal; Alternatif Pendidikan
Nasional. Http://Maskelik.Multiply.Com/Journal/Item/19/Pendidikan_Liberal_Alternatif_Pendidikan_Nasional. Diakses pada 16 Maret 2010.

The Assessment in English Language Teaching: From Theory to Practice [a paper by Agustina Djihadi]

Introduction

It has been known that assessment for learning should be part of effective planning of teaching and learning. Thus, the understanding on what, why, and how on assessment seem really urgent for teachers. Related to that, this essay is aimed to to present the differences between measurement, assessment, evaluation, and testing, discuss whyness of assessment, comparing assesment versus evaluation and grading, discuss some key concepts in assessment, types and approaches to assessment, assessment on language competence, some principles for good assesment, and take a look at testing: why and how. Finally, the conclusion will be drawn in the end of the discussion. It is expected that the overview on the assessment principles will guide the assessment training and professional development of teachers and administrators to run more productive assessment in English Language Teaching (ELT).

Differences between Measurement, Assessment, Evaluation, and Testing

It seems that understanding the differences between measurement, assessment, evaluation, and testing is fundamental to the knowledge base of professional teachers and effective teaching. These words so closely related that teachers or teachers to be might use them interchangebly or be confused.

As Burhan (2009) states, of the three, evaluation seems to have the broadest coverage. Citing TenBrink (1974), he defines evaluation as the process of obtaining information and using it to form judgments which in turn are to be used in decision making. Expanded initially and finally, the process is made up five stages, namely, (1) preparing, (2) collecting the data, (3) making judgments, (4) making decision, and (5) reporting.

Assesment, as Burhan (2009) states, does not include decision making and reporting. It focuses mainly on data gathering and placing a value on something. Put it another way, assessment seems to cover stages 1, 2, and 3 of the evaluation process. Meanwhile, the last term, testing, is the narrowest in scope. It is one of the techniques for collecting the data or scores. It can be used with other techniques such as observation and interviews. It does not deal with the making judgments.

Again, about assessment, one connotative meaning of assesment is that it is used or done both in formal situation and in informal ways. As complementary efforts, informal assesment is encouraged to be done to get additional data in addition to the data obtaind from formal testing. The term assesment is recently ofen encountered in TEFL or TESOL publications.

Additionally, Kizlik (2010) elucidates some differences on measurement, assessment, and evaluation. He states that measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some physical object are determined. One exception seems to be in the use of the word measure in determining the IQ of a person. The phrase, "this test measures IQ" is commonly used. Measuring such things as attitudes or preferences also applies. However, when we measure, we generally use some standard instrument to determine how big, tall, heavy, voluminous, hot, cold, fast, or straight something actually is. Standard instruments refer to instruments such as rulers, scales, thermometers, pressure gauges, etc. We measure to obtain information about what is. Such information may or may not be useful, depending on the accuracy of the instruments we use, and our skill at using them. There are few such instruments in the social sciences that approach the validity and reliability of say a 12" ruler. We measure how big a classroom is in terms of square feet, we measure the temperature of the room by using a thermometer, and we use Ohm meters to determine the voltage, amperage, and resistance in a circuit. In all of these examples, we are not assessing anything; we are simply collecting information relative to some established rule or standard.

Assessment, as he further states, is therefore quite different from measurement, and has uses that suggest very different purposes. Assessment is a process by which information is obtained relative to some known objective or goal. Assessment is a broad term that includes testing. A test is a special form of assessment. Tests are assessments made under contrived circumstances especially so that they may be administered. In other words, all tests are assessments, but not all assessments are tests. We test at the end of a lesson or unit. Whether implicit or explicit, assessment is most usefully connected to some goal or objective for which the assessment is designed. A test or assessment yields information relative to an objective or goal. In that sense, we test or assess to determine whether or not an objective or goal has been obtained. Assessment of skill attainment is rather straightforward. Either the skill exists at some acceptable level or it doesn’t. Skills are readily demonstrable. Assessment of understanding is much more difficult and complex. Skills can be practiced; understandings cannot. We can assess a person’s knowledge in a variety of ways, but there is always a leap, an inference that we make about what a person does in relation to what it signifies about what he knows.

Meanwhile, evaluation is perhaps the most complex and least understood of the terms. Inherent in the idea of evaluation is "value." When we evaluate, what we are doing is engaging in some process that is designed to provide information that will help us make a judgment about a given situation. Generally, any evaluation process requires information about the situation in question. A situation is an umbrella term that takes into account such ideas as objectives, goals, standards, procedures, and so on. When we evaluate, we are saying that the process will yield information regarding the worthiness, appropriateness, goodness, validity, legality, etc., of something for which a reliable measurement or assessment has been made. To sum up, we measure distance, we assess learning, and we evaluate results in terms of some set of criteria. These three terms are certainly connected, but it is useful to think of them as separate but connected ideas and processes.

The key concepts in assesment are also clarified by Cameron (2002). She states that evaluation refers to a broader notion than assessment, and refers to a process of systematically collecting information in order to make a judgment. Evaluation can thus concern a whole range of issues in and beyond language education: lesson, courses, programs, and skills can all be evaluated. If we were to evaluate a course, we would need to collect many different types of information: course information, observation of lessons, interviews with pupils and teachers, course feedback questionnaires, examination results. Analyzing and combining the different types of information would enable a judgment to be made about the success, or the viability, or cost-effectiveness, of the course.

She further states that assessment is concerned with pupil’s learning or performance, and thus provides one type of information that might be used in evaluation. Testing is a particular form of assessment, that is connected with measuring learning through performance.

As Scanlan (2003) states, to many teachers (and students), “assessment” simply means giving students tests and assigning them grades. This conception of assessment is not only limited, but also limiting. It fails to take into account both the utility of assessment and its importance in the teaching/learning process.
In the most general sense, as he states, assessment is the process of making a judgment or measurement of worth of an entity (e.g., person, process, or program). Educational assessment involves gathering and evaluating data evolving from planned learning activities or programs. This form of assessment is often referred to as evaluation (see section below on Assessment versus Evaluation). Learner assessment represents a particular type of educational assessment normally conducted by teachers and designed to serve several related purpose (Brissenden and Slater, n.d.). These purposed include: motivating and directing learning, providing feedback to student on their performance, providing feedback on instruction and/or the curriculum, and ensuring standards of progression are met


Why Assessment

For teachers and curriculum/course designers, carefully constructed learner assessment techniques can help determining whether or not the stated goals are being achieved. According to Brissenden and Slater (year unknown) as cited by Scanlan (2003), classroom assessment can help teachers answer the following specific questions:
To what extent are my students achieving the stated goals?
How should I allocate class time for the current topic?
Can I teach this topic in a more efficient or effective way?
What parts of this course/unit are my students finding most valuable?
How will I change this course/unit the next time I teach it?
Which grades do I assign my students?

Meanwhile, for students, learner assessment answers a different set of questions:
Do I know what my instructor thinks is most important?
Am I mastering the course content?
How can I improve the way I study in this course?
What grade am I earning in this course?

Explaining the importance of assesment, Brissenden and Slater as cited by Scanlan (2003) states that first and foremost, assessment is important because it drives students learning. Whether we like it or not, most students tend to focus their energies on the best or most expeditious way to pass their ‘tests.’ Based on this knowledge, we can use our assessment strategies to manipulate the kinds of learning that takes place. For example, assessment strategies that focus predominantly on recall of knowledge will likely promote superficial learning. On the other hand, if we choose assessment strategies that demand critical thinking or creative problem-solving, we are likely to realize a higher level of student performance or achievement. In addition, good assessment can help students become more effective self-directed learners.

As indicated above, motivating and directing learning is only one purpose of assessment. Well-designed assessment strategies also play a critical role in educational decision-making and are a vital component of ongoing quality improvement processes at the lesson, course and/or curriculum level.


Assessment versus Evaluation and Grading

In terms of why and how the measurements are made, the following table (Apple & Krumsieg, 1998) as cited by Scanlan (2003) compares and contrasts assessment and evaluation on several important dimension, some of which were previously defined.
Dimension Assessment Evaluation
Timing Formative Summative
Focus of Measurement Process-Oriented Product-Oriented
Relationship Between Administrator and Recipient Reflective Prescriptive
Findings and Uses Diagnostic Judgmental
Modifiability of Criteria, Measures Flexible Fixed
Standards of Measurement Absolute (Individual) Comparative
Relation Between Objects of A/E Cooperative Competitive
The bottom line? Given the different meaning ascribed to these terms by some educators, it is probably best that whenever you use these terms, you make your definitions clear.

Based on the above discussion, grading grading could be considered a component of assessment, i.e., a formal, summative, final and product-oriented judgment of overall quality of worth of a student's performance or achievement in a particular educational activity, e.g., a course. Generally, grading also employs a comparative standard of measurement and sets up a competitive relationship between those receiving the grades. Most proponents of assessment, however, would argue that grading and assessment are two different things, or at least opposite pole on the evaluation spectrum. For them, assessment measures student growth and progress on an individual basis, emphasizing informal, formative, process-oriented reflective feedback and communication between student and teacher. Ultimately, which conception you supports probably depends more on your teaching philosophy than anything else.


Some Key Concepts in Assesment

To ensure our comprehension on assessment, some important concepts in assesment are noted by Cameron (2002) as follows.

1. Formative and summative assessment
Formative assessment aims to inform ongoing teaching and learning by providing immediate feedback. A teacher who assesses pupils’ understanding of a listening text and uses the outcomes to change her plan and give more practice before moving on to a speaking activity, is carrying out formative assessment. Ideally, formative assessment should influence both teaching and learning by giving feedback to both teacher and learner. Summative assessment, on the other hand, aims to asses learning at the end of a unit, term, year, or course, and does not feed back into the next round of teaching.

2. Diagnostic and Achievement Assessment
Many assessment activities provide both formative and summative information, but it is helpful to be clear as to the primary purpose and one of an assessment because this can affect what kind of information the activity needs to produce. An assessment of pronunciation skills that a formative will need to tell us where pupils are having difficulty so that the teacher can decide how to give extra practice; a test that gives a list of marks will not help the teacher make such decisions, but an activity that produces a description of each child’s performance will. This example highlights the distinction between assessing achievement, i.e. what a learner can do, and diagnostic assessment that aims to establish what a child can and can not yet do, so that further learning opportunities can be provided.

3. Criterion-referenced and Norm-referenced Assessment
If we assess learner’s achievement, we can produce a ranking of learners which says that child X has learnt more than child Y and less that child Z; this would be norm-referenced. Alternatively, we can compare a learner’s performance, not to other learners, but to a set of criteria of expected performance or learning targets. Criterion-referenced assesment can match the child’s performance against an expected response on an item, or it may make use of a set of descriptors along a scale, on which a learner is placed.

4. Validity
The concepts of validity and reliability are used to describe the technical quality of assessment practices. They are more often applied to testing, although are also important in alternative assessment. Validity is more important, particularly in alternative assessment, and concerns how far an assesment assesses what it claims to. If a test does not measure what it claims to, then there are clearly dangers in using it.

5. Reliability
Reliability measures how well a test or assessment assesses what it claims to: would the assessment produce the same results if it were taken by the same pupils on different occasions, or if the same test or assesment was scored by different people? (Gipps and Stobart, 1993).
Validity and reliability can be conflicting needs for assessment techniques and procedures. The most reliable assessments will be pencil and paper tests in which each item measures only a single aspect of a skill and which give each testee a numerical mark. But the most valid assessments will be on those that collect a lot of information about performance on several aspects of a skill. When validity increased, reliability decreased.


Types and Approaches to Assessment

Numerous terms are used to describe different types and approaches to learner assessment. Although somewhat arbitrary, it is useful to these various terms as representing dichotomous poles as explained by Scanlan (2003).
Formative <---------------------------------> Summative
Informal <---------------------------------> Formal
Continuous <----------------------------------> Final
Process <---------------------------------> Product
Divergent <---------------------------------> Convergent

1. Formative vs. Summative Assessment
Formative assessment is designed to assist the learning process by providing feedback to the learner, which can be used to identify strengths and weakness and hence improve future performance. Formative assessment is most appropriate where the results are to be used internally by those involved in the learning process (students, teachers, curriculum developers).
Summative assessment is used primarily to make decisions for grading or determine readiness for progression. Typically summative assessment occurs at the end of an educational activity and is designed to judge the learner’s overall performance. In addition to providing the basis for grade assignment, summative assessment is used to communicate students’ abilities to external stakeholders, e.g., administrators and employers.

2. Informal vs. Formal Assessment
With informal assessment, the judgments are integrated with other tasks, e.g., lecturer feedback on the answer to a question or preceptor feedback provided while performing a bedside procedure. Informal assessment is most often used to provide formative feedback. As such, it tends to be less threatening and thus less stressful to the student. However, informal feedback is prone to high subjectivity or bias.
Formal assessment occurs when students are aware that the task that they are doing is for assessment purposes, e.g., a written examination or OSCE. Most formal assessments also are summative in nature and thus tend to have greater motivation impact and are associated with increased stress. Given their role in decision-making, formal assessments should be held to higher standards of reliability and validity than informal assessments.

3. Continuous vs. Final Assessment
Continuous assessment occurs throughout a learning experience (intermittent is probably a more realistic term). Continuous assessment is most appropriate when student and/or instructor knowledge of progress or achievement is needed to determine the subsequent progression or sequence of activities. Continuous assessment provides both students and teachers with the information needed to improve teaching and learning in process. Obviously, continuous assessment involves increased effort for both teacher and student. Final (or terminal) assessment is that which takes place only at the end of a learning activity. It is most appropriate when learning can only be assessed as a complete whole rather than as constituent parts. Typically, final assessment is used for summative decision-making. Obviously, due to its timing, final assessment cannot be used for formative purposes.

4. Process vs. Product Assessment
Process assessment focuses on the steps or procedures underlying a particular ability or task, i.e., the cognitive steps in performing a mathematical operation or the procedure involved in analyzing a blood sample. Because it provides more detailed information, process assessment is most useful when a student is learning a new skill and for providing formative feedback to assist in improving performance.
Product assessment focuses on evaluating the result or outcome of a process. Using the above examples, we would focus on the answer to the math computation or the accuracy of the blood test results. Product assessment is most appropriate for documenting proficiency or competency in a given skill, i.e., for summative purposes. In general, product assessments are easier to create than product assessments, requiring only a specification of the attributes of the final product.

5. Divergent vs. Convergent Assessment
Divergent assessments are those for which a range of answers or solutions might be considered correct. Examples include essay tests, and solutions to the typical types of indeterminate problems posed in PBL. Divergent assessments tend to be more authentic and most appropriate in evaluating higher cognitive skills. However, these types of assessment are often time consuming to evaluate and the resulting judgments often exhibit poor reliability. A convergent assessment has only one correct response (per item). Objective test items are the best example and demonstrate the value of this approach in assessing knowledge. Obviously, convergent assessments are easier to evaluate or score than divergent assessments. Unfortunately, this “ease of use” often leads to their widespread application of this approach even when contrary to good assessment practices. Specifically, the familiarity and ease with which convergent assessment tools can be applied leads to two common evaluation fallacies: the Fallacy of False Quantification (the tendency to focus on what’s easiest to measure) and the Law of the Instrument Fallacy (molding the evaluation problem to fit the tool).


Assessment on Language Competence

To evaluate the learners’ ability to use a language, assessment should be geared to measuring their communicative competences or language proficiency. Omaggio (1883: 2) ini Burhan (2009: 41) summarizes that language proficiency includes the mastery of these competences:
1. Grammatical Competence
Grammatical competence includes knowledge of vocabulary and rules of pronunciation/spelling, word-formations, and sentence formations. Such competence is an important concern for the communicative approach ini order for the learners to understand and express accurately the literal meaning of utterances
2. Sociolinguistic Competence
It addresses the extent to which grammatical forms can be used or understood appropriately to communicate in various social settings.
3. Discourse Competence
Discourse competence refers to the mastery or combining sentences and ideas to achieve unified spoken and written text through cohesion in forms and coherence in thought
4. Strategic Competence
Such competence is the ability of the language users to use verbal and nonverbal communication strategies when the communication is interrupted due to interference, distraction, or inadequate other competences

To put it another way, to measure the learners’ language proficiency is to assess the learners’ language acquisition. Acquiring a language means getting the ability to use the language in real communication which demands appropriate functions of language.

Fifth and Macintosh (1984: 10) in Burhan (2009: 96) state that there are two approaches in doing the assessment as follows.
1. The Pragmatic Approach
This approach is concerned with the actuality of the teaching-learning situations. It is an assesment of what is going on in the classroom. It is an assesment of what is going on in the classroom. It is done to discriminate between the learners and the analysis of the result is intended to ensure that the assesment is well balanced. The choice of the assesment techniques depends on the opportunities presented by unexpected outcomes. The final grading is postponed until all outcomes of assesment can be properly balanced and adjusted.
2. The Predetermined Approach
The predertermined approach relies on the plan set up before. In this approach, the objectives are set up the outset of the instruction and some criteria are formulated to determine the level of mastery. Pretesting and posttesting of assesment material are carried out to ensure that it is appropriate to the learners and relevant to the subject being taught and to ensure that the results are taken into account.
3. Techniques of Assesment
There is a considerable range of techniques to measure the abilities and acquired skills of the learners. The selection of the technique of several techniques depends on (1) the purpose of the assesment, (2) the time and resources, and (3) the age and the ability of the learners. Several techniques can be applied and Fifth and Macintosh (1984: 52) lists the techniques as follows: (1) written assesment, (2) practical assesment, (3) oral assesment and aural assesment, (4) learner questionnaires, and (5) coursework (including projects and fieldwork).
4. Evaluation Criteria for Language Proficiency
Communicative competence of second or foreign language learners can be determined on the basis of the following three coexisting and interrelated hierarchies of judgmental criteria: (1) function, (2) content, and (3) accuracy. The question that must be asked is “What were they able to communicate, and how well?”. The what refers to the topic or context. The How well refers to the linguistic accuracy and cultural authenticity. The first and the second criteria, seem to be concerned mainly with the use (of language) and the situation (in which the language is used) while the third criterion is based on the form. Put it more technical way, criteria one and two are sociolinguistically oriented, and the third linguistically oriented.


Principles for Good Assesment

Another important question on assesment is: what principles which provide the most essential, fundamental "structure" of assessment knowledge and skills that result in effective educational practices and improved student learning? McMillan (2000) tries to elaborate the principles as follows.

1. Assessment is inherently a process of professional judgment.
2. Assessment is based on separate but related principles of measurement evidence and evaluation.
3. Assessment decision-making is influenced by a series of tensions.
4. Assessment influences student motivation and learning.
5. Assessment contains error.
6. Good assessment enhances instruction.
7. Good assessment is valid.
8. Good assessment is fair and ethical.
9. Good assessments use multiple methods.
10. Good assessment is efficient and feasible.
11. Good assessment appropriately incorporates technology.


Testing: Why and How

Testing is certainly not the only way to assess students, but there are many good reasons for including a test in our language course, as stated by Frost (2004).
1. A test can give the teacher valuable information about where the students are in their learning and can affect what the teacher will cover next. They will help a teacher to decide if her teaching has been effective and help to highlight what needs to be reviewed. Testing can be as much an assessment of the teaching as the learning
2. Tests can give students a sense of accomplishment as well as information about what they know and what they need to review.
3. Tests can also have a positive effect in that they encourage students to review material covered on the course.

However, Frost (2004) also notes why testing doesn't work. According to him, there are many arguments against using tests as a form of assessment:
1. Some students become so nervous that they can't perform and don't give a true account of their knowledge or ability
2. Other students can do well with last-minute cramming despite not having worked throughout the course
3. Once the test has finished, students can just forget all that they had learned
4. Students become focused on passing tests rather than learning to improve their language skills.

Frost (2004) admits that using only tests as a basis for assessment has obvious drawbacks. They are 'one-off' events that do not necessarily give an entirely fair account of a student's proficiency. As we have already mentioned, some people are more suited to them than others. There are other alternatives that can be used instead of or alongside tests.
1. Continuous assessment
Teachers give grades for a number of assignments over a period of time. A final grade is decided on a combination of assignments.
2. Portfolio
A student collects a number of assignments and projects and presents them in a file. The file is then used as a basis for evaluation.
3. Self-assessment
The students evaluate themselves. The criteria must be carefully decided upon beforehand.
4. Teacher's assessment
The teacher gives an assessment of the learner for work done throughout the course including classroom contributions.


Conclusion

To summarize, what is most essential about assessment is understanding how general, fundamental assessment principles and ideas can be used to enhance student learning and teacher effectiveness. This will be achieved as teachers and administrators learn about conceptual and technical assessment concepts, methods, and procedures, for both large-scale and classroom assessments, and apply these fundamentals to instruction. Finally, the comprehension on the assessment principles will guide the assessment training and professional development of teachers and administrators to run more productive assessment.















References


Burhan, Akhyar. 2009. Second Language Teaching and Linguistics. Palembag:
Grafika Telindo Press.

Cameron, Lynne. 2001. Teaching Languages to Young Learners. UK: Cambridge
University Press.

Frost, Richard. 2004. Testing and assessment. Retrieved at May 27, 2010 from
http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/testing-assessment.

Hughes, Arthur. 2000. Testing for Language Teachers. UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Kizlik, Bob. 2010. Measurement, Assessment, and Evaluation in Education. Retrieved at May 27, 2010 from http://www.adprima.com/measurement.htm.
McMillan, James H. (2000). Fundamental assessment principles for teachers and
school administrators. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 7(8).
Retrieved June 6, 2010 from http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=8.

Scanlan, Craig L. 2003. Assessment, Evaluation, Testing and Grading. Retrieved
at May 27, 2010 from
http://www.umdnj.edu/idsweb/idst5350/assess_eval_test_grade.htm

Some Critical Problems in English Language Teaching (ELT) related to the Teachers and What to Do with Those

Introduction

Language learning and teaching is a complex package of issues. People say that there is no one-size-fits-all prescription to guarantee everyone’s success at the same rate. Many obstacles occur in the process of ELT . Globally, education as a broad subject has also many complicated issues. There are many problems in our education inferred by Indonesia Policy Brief (2005). Some significant issues are as follows.

1. Not all children are in school.
Indonesia has yet to achieve its goal of nine years of education for all: currently, some 20 percent of children who should be attending junior high school do not.

2. The quality of schooling in Indonesia is low and declining.
Expansion has not produced graduates with the knowledge and skills needed to build a strong society and competitive economy for the future. Evidence of this is that eighth-graders in Indonesia performed below its Asian neighbors on international tests in 2001. Clearly, in the case of Indonesia the expansion in enrollments has not been accompanied by an increase in quality.

3. Teacher preparation and attendance are inadequate.
Unlike many other countries, Indonesia allows all graduates of all teacher training institutes to become teachers without checking the preparedness of those graduates to impart knowledge and skills under various school conditions; at the same time, it is difficult to remove teachers who cannot teach. In addition, according to a survey done for the World Development Report 2004, 20 percent of Indonesia’s teachers were absent at the time of a random spot check in a representative number of schools. This means that 20 percent of the funds that finance teachers has no direct benefit to students – simply because the teachers are not in the classrooms.

4. Schools are not regularly maintained.
One in six schools in Central Java is in “bad condition,” according to school survey data from the Ministry of National Education, (MoNE, 1999), while in at least one in two schools in Nusa Tenggara Timur, students sit in classrooms without the rudiments of instruction—textbooks, a blackboard, writing supplies, and a teacher who has mastered the curriculum. Indonesia needs to quickly catch up with its neighboring countries’ education standards. Indeed, a 2003 survey of Japanese manufacturing firms about their operations in other Asian countries reveals that Indonesia’s perceived low level of human resources and inadequate supply of management skills diminishes its appeal to investors. This must be a concern as Indonesia’s regional competitors are continuing to upgrade their education base.

Of all above issues, what seems the most interesting one is problems with the teachers. Fuad Hassan, in his era as the Minister of Education and Culture, talks about the education development in our country, “Don’t talk too much about curriculum and system; the doers are much more important” (Rizali, Sidi and Dharma, 2009). He strongly believes that the main problem of education everywhere is on teachers’ quality, not budgeting or facilities. We can take Finlandia as one of the best country in eduaction as the example. The competition to enter education faculty is much stricter than other prestigious faculties like law and medical. Malaysia also applies “five-year programme ‘tailor-made’ fot top sijil Pelajaran Malaysia” where the government promises the best graduates to be sent abroad to get education if they want to be Match and Science teachers. Through this program, they filter 500 the best graduates to be sent to Australia and England in these five years. They want only the best brains for the profession.

In USA, the Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation through Scholarship Rhodes Program launch a program to attract the best students to be teachers there. The foundation president, Arthur E. Levine, says that, “Research shows that providing excellent teachers is the single most important way to improve student achievement”.

The significant roles of the teachers brings us to the phenomena of problems related to the teachers at ELT. This essay tries to highlight some of them and proposes alternative solution to overcome the problems.


Some Critical Problems related to the Teachers at ELT

Here are the five of the English language learning classroom's most critical problems related to the teachers.

1. Teachers qualification
“Educational change depends on what teachers do and think –it’s as simple and as complex as that. It would be all so be easy if we could legislate changes in thinking. Classrooms and schools become effective when 1) quality people are recruited to teaching, and 2) the workplace is organized to energize teachers and reward accomplishments. The two are intimately related. Profesionally rewarding workplace conditions attract and retain good people”. The New Meaning of Educational Change, 3rd Ed. Fullan (2001) in Rizali, Sidi and Dharma (2009).

It is emphasized that if we want to make any significant changes in education, the main focus should be put on teachers’ quality. Schools will be effective if we recruit the best people as teachers and create conducive workplace for them.
Whereas, Rizali, Sidi and Dharma (2009) note data in 2000/2010 showing that only 49,49% teachers at primary schools are categorized qualified based on their teaching qualification (at least Diploma 2). In Secondary schools, only 66,33% are qualified based on their teaching qualification (at least Diploma 3) and the rest is unqualified. This percentage is now much bigger since teachers should have at least S1 qualification.

2. Teachers dedication
We remember the figure of Ibu Muslimah in Laskar Pelangi novel written by Andrea Hirata, who really captured her unlimitted dedication to the poor students in Bangka. This kind of tough mental educator is badly needed in all areas of Indonesia since the conditions are often less conducive. Unfortunately, the quality of teachers in remot areas are often questionable, so does their dedication. Teachers -get along with their life needs- tend to become more “comercial” and “profit-oriented” instead of having priceless dedication to the students.

3. Teachers teaching skills
Again, the potrait of schools are represented by their teachers. Big ambitions to reach “international level school”, for example, will be diminished if the teachers are not in “international level”. To see the facts, teachers’ quality in our country are still much left behind to construct significant changes (Rizali, Sidi and Dharma: 2009). They are still “teacher’s centered” and don’t internalize the essence of curriculum. To make it worse, the government applies Ujian Nasional to determine the students’ succcess in learning, which is cognitive-based and not matched with Competence-based Curriculum. Citing Suyanto (2005), they say, “Product-oriented assessment tends to produce instant output and stagnant, event contra-productive instructions at schools”.

Here teachers’ teaching skills are significant matters. As Harmer (1998) says, although the character and personality of the teacher is a critical issue in the classtoom, by far the greatest number of responses so the question “What Makes a Good Teacher?” were not so much about teachers themselves, but rather about the relationship betwee the teacher and the students. Class management –the ability to control and inspire the class- is one of the fundamental skills of teaching. Teachers find it much easier if their students believe that they are genuinely interested in them and available for them. Thus, a simple answer to the question “What makes a good teacher?” therefore is that a good teacher care more about their students’ learning than they do about their own teaching.

4. Teachers welfare
As Setiawan (2008) says, teachers in our country are classified into marginal society. Winarno Surakhman criticitized this in his poem “Kapan Sekolah Kami Lebih Baik dari Kandang Ayam”:
Disini berbaring seorang guru
Semampu membaca buku usang
Sambil belajar menahan lapar
Hidup sebulan dengan gaji sehari..

The portrait of Oemar Bakri as Iwan Fals sings is also the real phenomenon. There is era when groups of teachers not more than just a tool of political regime to seek power. Whereas, Rizali, Sidi and Dharma (2009) say, professional teachers should not only well-performed, but also well-trained, well-equipped, and well-paid.
We can compare to the condition in Singapore. The recruitment of teachers are done seriously, and due to lack of human resources (only four millions people) the government invites foreigners to be teachers there. In university level for example, NTU and National University of Singapore (NUS) offer promising compensations and payment a high as Harvard Business School. The governent absolutely think seriously to attract the best talents and brains to be teachers.

5. Teachers mindset
Changing education is all about changing paradigm. The paradigm of teachers to educate, not only teach; to transfer skills and attitude, not only knowledge, should be posesesed by all teachers. Good teachers should care more about their students’ learning than they do about their own teaching, as Harmer (1998) says.


The Proposed Solution to the Problems of Teachers at ELT

Considering all problems with teachers of ELT as described above, professional development for teachers becomed proposed solution to be done by teachers, either individually or in collective way. Murray (2010) highlights some reasons for teachers to pursue professional development and techniques that teachers have found help them feel empowered and motivated in their English language classrooms.

One of the main reasons to pursue professional development is to be empowered –to have the opportunity and the confidence to act upon your ideas as well as to influence the way you perform in your profession. As teachers, we have the capacity to empower ourselves if we keep in mind the following precepts: be positive; believe in what you are doing and in yourself; be proactive, not reactive; and be assertive, not aggressive. Feeling empowered can also manifest leadership skills, and teachers empowermet leads to improvement in student performance and attitude.

Teacher development opportunities can take many forms. Some are individual or informal while other occasions are collective or structured. The most obvious professional development activity for an English teacher is reading journals (and maybe even writing and article for one) keeps you informed about new trends and research developments.

Here are some activities for professional development:
1. Individual technique: keep a teaching journal, analyze a critical incident, participate in workshops and conferences
2. Collaborative technique: share journals, try peer mentoring and coaching, form a teacher support group, join a teacher support network, form or join local and national teachers’ associations, urge your association to connect with other associations, become active in an international professional association

However, in our country, the government shows their concern to improve our educational quality by launching teachers education revitalization program (program revitalisasi pendididikan guru/Lembaga Pendidikan Tenaga Kependidikan) name as BERMUTU (Better Education through Reformed Management of Universal Teacher and Upgrading). It can be expected that this kind of projects will contribute much to the professional development of the teachers of ELT so that the problems will be minimized.


Conclusion

Many problems occur in ELT related to the teachers. problems related to the teachers. Some of them are teachers’ qualification, teachers’ dedication, teachers’ teaching skills, teachers’ welfare, and teachers’ mindset. Globally, these problems can be minimized through professional development done by the teachers. However, professional develoment is an ongoing process, one that evolves as them assess and reexamine their teaching beliefs and practices.



References:

Harmer, Jeremy. 1998. How to Teach English. Essex: Longman.
Indonesia Policy Brief. 2005. siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/.../Education.pdf. Retrieved at May 11, 2010.
Murray, Alice. Empowering Teachers through Professional Development. English Teaching Forum .Vol. 48 Number 1 2010.
Rizali, Ahmad, Indra Djati Sidi, dan Satria Dharma. 2009. Dari Guru Konvensional Menuju Guru Profesional. Jakarta: PT Grasindo.
Setiawan, Benny. 2008. Agenda Pendidikan Nasional. Jogjakarta: Ar-Ruzz Media.